Seeking enhanced efficiency in energy production (actually, harvesting energy from the natural environment), conversion and use is an important and viable aim, even though it is likely that this will not lead to total reductions in energy use simply because the benefits of using more energy will be considered to outweigh costs, including environmental costs. Especially because of the increase in intermittent energy production from renewable sources, energy efficiency is in practice increasingly and intimately related to energy systems integration and a systems perspective on efficiency is often central. This can relate to the capacity factor of wind turbines and the source of electricity during low-wind periods, the use of relatively small-scale thermal storage functions in buildings to buffer variations in electricity production, or to a systems assessment where the true (energy) costs of improved new buildings or renovations is weighed against the potential  energy savings. In the broader picture, it is often the true total system of costs and savings to society which should be in focus, not the energy producer’s or consumer’s perspective, which may be strongly affected  by taxes and subsidies. It is likely that significant new Research Infrastructures will be necessary to optimally approach these challenges. However, the future system is constructed: it is vital that it can reliably and securely supply the necessary base-load power at all times and at reasonable cost.

Current status

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS For effectiveness at a systems level and especially because of the intermittent supply from some electricity sources, it is becoming increasingly important that the energy consumption and efficiency of buildings are  considered together with the energy supply mechanisms available, for example plants producing both electricity and heat for use in buildings. Optimal solutions for different types of buildings – e.g. industrial, commercial, single dwelling, high rise flats – in different climatic conditions will be different.  It is especially important that rapid changes in demand for heating and cooling in buildings does not destabilize the electricity supply system, which will require some integrated steering of supply and demand. It is also important that optimization of electricity use does not lead to severe de-optimization  in buildings, such as increased maintenance costs due to fluctuating internal temperatures and humidity, or (energy) costs for additional insulation which outweigh energy savings for heating/cooling. The practical situation is complex, and consumer behaviour is affected by various political decisions related to, for instance, building norms, taxation and subsidies. It is important that these decisions are based on solid empirical data. This demands investments in real life laboratory Research Infrastructures, including monitoring energy use in buildings and energy production. As the European energy system is becoming increasingly integrated, a pan-European perspective is necessary.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND USE IN INDUSTRY The concepts mentioned above regarding buildings and the need for a systems perspective are also relevant for industry. In addition, there are major possibilities for improved energy efficiency and/or reduced  greenhouse emissions from many industrial processes. Not all waste products (waste material, heat) are effectively utilized today, seen from an energy efficiency perspective, even if promising results have already been obtained - e.g. in heavy industry. Where a major opportunity for enhanced industrial energy efficiency is assessed, research and development investments may be strongly motivated. In some cases, public investment in research and pilot and demonstration  plants will be motivated. It is important that new insights and solutions developed in different European countries are effectively spread. The following areas may merit major investments over the coming years.

A state-of-the-art automation information technology and connectivity will enable the digitalization of production that goes far beyond conventional automation of industrial production. Initiatives have been started around the globe to foster digitalization, like IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things)https://www.i-scoop.eu/internet-of-things-guide/industrial-internet-things-iiot-saving-costs-innovation/ in the US, Industrie 4.0https://www.gtai.de/GTAI/Navigation/EN/Invest/industrie-4-0.html in Germany, or China 2025https://www.csis.org/analysis/made-china-2025 . Another aspect of energy saving  represents predictive modelling and simulation, coupled with the artificial intelligence for automatic optimization of processing  with respect to use of resources, energy, productivity and product quality. The intelligent combination of sensor technology ombined with these digital models lead to new dimensions in the efficient use of energy in industry.

Metals, polymers and ceramics are crucial materials for energy transition and low-carbon economy. Since it will never be possible to produce them without energy, we have to change to carbon-free energy sources in order to reduce or prevent CO2 emissions in the long term. Industry is working consistently on the further development of the processes towards the stepwise de-carbonization of production. Specifically, the companies plan to make a gradual shift from the use of fossil fuels via bridging technologies to the potential use of hydrogen in the production of materials. Areas which may merit major investment over the coming years include: cement and ceramic production (much CO2 release), the aluminium, iron and steel industries, pulp mills for paper production, etc. Important energy saving aspects are also: recycling, refinement, re-use and waste elimination.

Very important energy related research is in the metals industry advancing in the directions of: Light alloys and metal-matrix composites (for lighter vehicles), High-temperature extreme alloys and composites (for increase of thermodynamic efficiency in boilers), and development of thermoelectric alloys that will in the future be able to convert the waste heat into electricity (see project Metallurgy Europe).

POWER-TO-X (-TO-POWER) The increasing use of intermittent sources of energy such as wind and solar demands new solutions to ensure a continuously reliable electricity supply. With the share of renewable energy rising, the electricity grid  runs up against its limits due to the large dynamic fluctuations which have to be  accommodated. In this context, energy storage on different time scales gains importance. Battery storage can contribute, but long time storage of high energy quantities calls for other solutions. One way which reduces the CO2 footprint of the whole energy system and is to convert electricity at times of surplus power into storable energy, to be released at times of low supply. Long-term storage, needed to meet seasonal variation in supply and demand and which could limit the need for grid expansion, will only be possible by converting excess energy into chemical carriers by using carbon dioxide, water and/or nitrogen, the so-called Power-to-X (P2X) scheme. This includes conversion into hydrogen or methane gas (P2G). Further chemical processing can also lead to liquid fuels or base chemicals for value added products. Apart from their general contribution to decarbonizing the energy supply, these process routes provide potential for the saving of fossil resources in industry. The topic P2X therefore responds to the EU SET Plan actions 1 (renewables), 2 (materials) and 8 (transportation).

Currently, European countries run around 50 P2G demonstration projects, with efforts accelerating and increasing over the past 3 years. The main focus is on splitting of water and/or CO2 to produce hydrogen or syngas, complemented by the respective work on system integration. For example, the European STORE&GO project focuses on the synthesis step at 1 MW level in three demonstration environments in Germany, Italy and Switzerland. France recently started the 1 MW Jupiter 1000 project. Germany released a 10-year Kopernikus research project Power-to-X. With 50 partners from research, industry and society it represents the biggest EU wide concerted effort in the field so far. The focus is on low-emission electricity-based liquid fuels and chemical products. Another German flagship project, Carbon2Chem, targets the conversion of carbon dioxide from the steel industry into fuels and base chemicals. EERA JP Energy Storage covers the area of P2X in its sub-programme Chemical Storage.

CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE, STORAGE AND UTILIZATION Carbon Dioxide Capture, Transport and Storage (CCS) is one of the main objectives of the European energy policy, the low carbon policy. Most of the European countries are focusing on decarbonising the power sector and energy intensive industry and thus reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions. However, political uncertainties related to safety on land storage of the CCS  force countries with big industrial activities like Germany to step out of research and development in CCS. The Global CCS Institute gives among other information, a database of facilities world wide ranging from large scale, pilot and demonstration to test centreshttps://www.globalccsinstitute.com/. NETL’s Carbon Capture and Storage Databasehttps://www.netl.doe.gov/research/coal/carbon-capture includes active, proposed, and terminated CCS projects worldwide. The database contains several hundred CCS projects worldwide. European activities towards CCS are served by two entities: the Zero emission Platform (ZEP) and the European Energy Research Alliance Joint Programme on CCS (EERA JP-CCS). ZEP is a unique coalition of stakeholders and acts as advisor to the European Commission on the research, demonstration and deployment of CCS  for combating climate change. Nineteen different countries contribute actively to ZEP’s activities, while 40 different companies and organisations comprise the Advisory Council. The EERA Joint Programme on CCS (EERA JP-CCS) has a strong R&D focus and encompasses 40 public European research centres and universities working on a common programme. The EERA JP-CCS including a new CO2 transport sub programme and has contributed to the SET Plan Integrated Roadmap. Member States are involved in the CCS deployment activities and plans through the European Industrial Initiative EII on CCS. Technology Centre Mongstad (TCM) is the world’s largest facility for testing and improving CO2 capture using two units each approximately 12 MWe in size, able to capturing 100.000 tonnes CO2/year. A new legal operation agreement for TCM is established through 2020. The major open access RI on the ESFRI Roadmap is the ESFRI Landmark ECCSEL ERIC. a top quality European Research Infrastructure devoted to second and third generation CCS technologies. For accelerating the commercialisation and deployment of CCS methods, the ESFRI Landmark ECCSEL ERIC has been transferred to a European Research Infrastructure Consortium (ERIC) as a legal entity recognised by the Council Regulation of the European Commission offering access to 44 research facilities. The UKCCSRC Pilot-scale Advanced Capture Technology (PACT) facilities are national specialist R&D facilities for combustion and carbon capture technology  research. The purpose of PACT is to support and catalyze industrial and academic R&D in order to accelerate the development and commercialization of novel technologies for carbon capture and clean power generation. There is a network coordination between TCM, ESFRI Landmark ECCSEL ERIC and PACT. Long-term monitoring and documentation of stored CO2 in geological reservoirs have been achieved. The Sleipner CO2 Storage facility was the first in the world to inject CO2 into a dedicated offshore geological sandstone reservoir since 1996 and over 16.5 million tonnes have been injected at the end of 2016. The Snøhvit CO2 Storage facilities has captured more than 4 million tonnes of CO2 at an LNG facility in northern Norway and transported in a pipeline back to the Snøhvit field offshore and injected into a storage reservoir. To capture CO2 from industrial processes has some advantages like lower capture cost, excess energy that can be used for CO2 capture and stable CO2 source. The concentration of CO2 in the flue gas is often higher than in power systems, in cement plants typically from 18 to 22 vol%. They are often also located in industrial clusters/coastal locations which can possibly lower transport cost. There are three pilot plants in Capturing Carbon in Norway; Norcem AS (cement plant), Yara Norge AS (ammonia plant) and Klemetsrudanlegget AS (waste-to-energy- recovery plant) selected for detailed studies of full-scale carbon capture at their respective plants. Total CO2 injection capacity for all three plants in full scale operation is approximately 1.3 Mtpa. A combined pipeline and shipping system is being examined for CO2 storage in the Smeaheia area offshore. A final investment decision is targeted for 2019 with ambitions to begin operation in 2022. 

There is increasing attention towards CO2 utilisation (CCU). Specifically, a number  of facilities that use CO2 in products, or to support operations have been constructed or announced in the last decade. It is important to note that not all CO2 utilisation options will necessarily contribute to longer term climate change mitigation: the storage lifetime can be counted in days to years as opposed to centuries. There are many different ways to use CO2 and key technologies can be grouped into polycarbonate plastics, chemicals and mineralization/cements. Development of new catalysts replacing chemical products usually derived from fossil fuels is of major interest. Notwithstanding the above points, the market for products derived from use of CO2 is small relative to what is needed to be stored in order to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C – a cumulative 90 Gigatonnes of CO2 captured and stored in the period to 2050.

GAPS, CHALLENGES AND FUTURE NEEDS

It can be argued that research has been focussing on single components, rathen than concentrating on the analysis of complex energy systems on different scales where the different elements interact. Research Infrastructures investigating systems in practical use could be of significant benefit. One example of this is the use of energy in buildings, and increasing the supply of energy from buildings. The latter may relate to production of electricity, for example, or exploiting the thermal storage potential of buildings to facilitate the use of intermittent electricity production from renewable sources. Similarly, projects related to the use of waste products from industry for energy production have significant potential. Realizing such potentials may demand Research Infrastructure initiatives, leading into pilot and demonstration activities on commercial scale.

Power-to-X addresses core research questions on electrolysis and plasmochemical conversion, including catalysis, materials, membranes and efficiency on one hand, and the synthesis of fuels and base chemicals on the other hand. For P2X processes to be a major component in the future energy system, they must be adequately energy efficient and cost efficient. Major investments, from research to pilot and demonstration plants, will be necessary to achieve this. The R&D tasks range from basic research over questions of up-scaling to the demonstration of large plants combining production and use. Local infrastructures and expertise in electro-chemical and plasma-chemical conversion, physical separation of gases and chemical synthesis needs to be combined and developed on European scale and size for creating efficient and effective integrated P2X solutions. This gap could be filled by an ESFRI distributed RI bringing together resources and testing facilities of EU Industry, government and non-governmental organizations.

It remains unclear if large scale Carbon dioxide capture, storage and utilization will become an important part of the energy system, but there is a possibility that this is the case. Therefore, further major investments in relevant Research Infrastructure should be considered.